Basic Terms

An adjective is a word that changes (modifies) or describes a noun.
“A big, fluffy cat and a small, friendly dog can be fun to own.” In this sentence, big, fluffy, small, and friendly are adjectives, and cat and dog are nouns. (See also noun and verb.)

An adverb is a word that changes or modifies a verb, adverb, or adjective. Words that end with the suffix ly are usually adverbs. “Juneau ran quickly and effortlessly to the corner.” Notice the ly endings in quickly and effortlessly; they provide a clue that these words are adverbs. (They are, in a manner of speaking, the vapor trail of an adverb.) The words quickly and effortlessly describe the verb ran. “How did Juneau run? She ran quickly and effortlessly.”

Letters that are placed in the order of the alphabet are alphabetically listed. The alphabet, in order, is a b c d e f g, h i j k l m n o p, q r s, t u v, w x, y and z. Students must learn the alphabet in order. “The Alphabet Song” is suited for this purpose. All through life, your student is going to need to look up names in a telephone book, words in a dictionary, and streets on a map index. He simply must know all 26 letters in their alphabetical order. Five of the letters in the alphabet are vowels: a, e, i, o, u. The rest of the letters in the alphabet function as consonants (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z). Occasionally, the consonants y and w act as if they are vowels.

The breve (pronounced |brēv|) is a curved line symbol (looks like a smile) that is placed above a vowel to indicate that the vowel says its short sound. In dictionaries, short vowel sounds are indicated with the breve as follows: ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ and ŭ. The breve instructs us how to pronounce such words as săt, rĕd, bĭd, ŏdd, and sŭn.

Chirography refers to handwriting or penmanship.

A closed syllable is one that ends with at least one consonant.

The sounds of some letters or pronunciation patterns are considered continuous. That means that as long as someone has breath and time, he can continue making the sound of the letter. All of the vowel sounds are continuous. Consider the vowel a. You can continue saying a in any of its variations—(|ă|, |ā|, |ä|)—as long as you have breath and time. A few consonants and consonant patterns are continuous, also. For example, the sh (|sh|) pattern in push can be expressed until one runs out of breath. These continuous letters are pronounced unbroken, without interruption.
(See, also, noncontinuous.)

A contraction is the combination of two words subsequently shortened by the omission of one or more letters. An apostrophe is inserted where the letter or letters were omitted. Common examples are isn’t (is not) and don’t (do not).
[There are a few irregular contractions, such as won’t (will not).] Reference: Lesson 83

The breve ( ˘ ) and the macron ( ¯ ) are both examples of diacritical marks. Diacritical marks tell us how to pronounce a word, accent a syllable, or separate a word. Some common diacritical marks, in addition to the breve and macron, are the accent ( ʹ ), which indicates that a syllable should be stressed, and the centered dot ( • ), which denotes a syllable break.

A digraph consists of two letters, the pronunciation of which changes when they are paired. They then represent one sound. This is illustrated by s and h, which, when paired as sh, are pronounced |sh|, as in ship. The independent, individual sounds are no longer pristinely preserved by the pairing. Among the consonant digraphs are ch, sh, and wh. The digraph th in then is voiced (involves vibration of the speaker’s vocal cords) but is not voiced in path. Digraphs always inhabit the same syllable (examples: wish • ful and path • way). [Do not be fooled by words like up • hill and pot • hole. These words do not have the digraphs ph or th.] There are many vowel digraphs, including, but not limited to, oo, ee, ea, ai, ew, au, aw, oa, oe, ie, and ou. (See, also, trigraph.)

A diphthong consists of two vowels representing one sound (di means two). These paired vowels appear in the same syllable. Some teachers refer to these as gliding sounds. Examples of diphthongs are oi, oy, ou, and ow, as in boil, boy, out, and cow.

The consonants b and p are considered equivalent letters because the manner in which they are pronounced, considering the position of the speaker’s tongue, mouth, and lips, is very similar, if not the same. However, whereas the letter b is voiced, the letter p is not. Both b and p are pronounced with the speaker’s lips lightly together. The speaker releases sound when his lips open. With b, before the sound is released, there is a brief blockage of air as vibration builds up in the vocal cords, lips, and nose. The letter p, on the other hand, is expressed by the releasing of a small puff of air, and there is no vibration of the vocal cords or lips. (Again, voiced means that a letter is pronounced with vocal cord vibration, and voiceless means a letter is pronounced without vibration.) There are at least ten pairs of equivalent letters in the English language. Knowing about the equivalency of some letters may help you understand the sound confusion that some students have with certain letters.

Homographs are words that are spelled exactly the same but have different meanings. [Here’s how to remember what a homograph is: Homo means same, and graph means written; therefore, written the same.] The context of a sentence or paragraph makes these words easy to read. The word story is a homograph. There is a story that is a tale to be told, for example, and there is a story that is a floor in a building. For more information see Lesson 88.

Homonyms are words that are spelled and pronounced exactly the same but have different meanings. [Here’s how to remember what a homonym is: Homo means same, and nym means name; therefore, same name.] The context of a sentence or paragraph makes these words easy to read. The word bat is a homonym. There is a bat that is a piece of baseball equipment, for example, and there is a bat that is a flying mammal. Reference: Lessons 1, 77, and 82

Homophones are words that sound the same but are spelled differently and mean different things. [Homo means same, and phone means sound; therefore, same sound.] Road sounds like rode, yet both words mean something different. “Cody and Cory rode down the bumpy dirt road.” “The Queen of Hearts began her reign during a rain storm. The lightning strikes caused her royal guards to have to rein in their skittish horses.” Keep a dictionary handy for learning about these words. Reference: Lessons 37, 38, 42, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 81, 82, 84, and 89

Even words considered to be irregular follow some recognized pattern for spelling or pronunciation for at least some part of the word. Consider the word cousin. The irregular part is the ou. In a rare departure from the usual pattern, the first vowel o is silent, and the second vowel, u, is pronounced with its short-vowel sound, |ŭ|. All of the other letters in the word cousin are pronounced and spelled in line with a regular pattern. Now let’s look at the word said. The s and the d are pronounced the usual way (|s| and |d|). Only the vowels ai in the word said are irregular. In this instance they are pronounced |ĕ|. If there is an English word lacking at least a partial regular or recognized pronunciation or spelling pattern, we have not found it.

A long vowel is a vowel that says its own name. A says |ā|, e says |ē|, i says |ī|; o says |ō|; and u says |ū|. For a fuller description of long vowels, see Unit 2, including the introductory pages (pages 75 – 103), and Unit 3 (specifically Lessons 60 and 61). Aim, bacon, free, eager, bike, boat, bowl, and use are all examples of long-vowel words.

The macron is a horizontal line ( ‾ ) that is placed above a vowel to tell the reader that the vowel is a long vowel: ā, ē, ī, ō, ū. The word macron can be pronounced correctly either |māʹ • krŏn| or |măkʹ • rŏn|. Reference: Lesson 67

Murmur diphthongs are letter pairs or trios that say |ər|. The spellings are variant, however, and include er, ir, ar, or, wor, ur, yr, ear, and our. It’s easy to remember how a murmur diphthong is pronounced. Remember this hint: The word itself—murmur—has the |әr| sound in both of its syllables |mәr • mәr|. Some words featuring murmur diphthongs are her, first, polar, flavor, word, turn, syrup, learn, and journey. Reference: Lesson 69

Some alphabet letters and patterns have a definite duration or stopping point. They are thus referred to as being noncontinuous. For example, the sound of p does not continue indefinitely. Notice that |p| stops the expression of o in the word top. The letter p is a noncontinuous sound and interrupts the flow of a preceding sound. These abrupt sounds are also referred to as quick, stop, or clipped sounds. (See continuous.)

A noun is a person, place, or thing. Note that we capitalize proper names of people (Jenifer, President Lincoln, Mr. Magoo) and places (Eiffel Tower, Scotland, Santa Fe, Reed College, Woodland Park Zoo).

An open syllable is one that ends with a vowel.

Orthoepy is the correct or accepted pronunciation of words. Reference: Lesson 87

Orthography refers to spelling patterns. Reference: Lesson 87

Phonics involves the sounds of letters. Reference: Lesson 87

If a word is plural, it means there is more than one of what the word represents. Most words are pluralized by adding s, others by adding es. There are only a few words in English that are pluralized by changing more than just the suffix (e.g., mouse → mice). Reference: Lessons 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 30, 57, 59, and 60

Having more than one syllable. See syllable.

A prefix consists of a syllable or syllables attached to the front end of a word to qualify (further describe) its meaning. There are a great many prefixes, among them pre, pro, ante, anti, un, and multi. Reference: Lesson 64

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. The basic pronouns are I, he, she, it, we, you (singular or plural), and they.

Punctuation marks are like traffic signals that tell the reader what to do. A period ( . ) tells the reader to stop. A comma ( , ) tells the reader to pause. A semicolon ( ; ) tells the reader to pause significantly and then finish reading the rest of the sentence. An exclamation point ( ! ) tells the reader to express surprise, excitement, or emphasis. A question mark ( ? ) prompts the reader to ask or inquire. A colon ( : ) signals that a list or statement meant to illustrate a point is forthcoming. Writers communicate through words and punctuation.

A quadrigraph consists of four letters pronounced as one sound; furthermore, these four letters occupy the same syllable. Some people claim that English does not have true quadrigraphs, also known as tetragraphs. However, the case for tetragraphs can be made if one counts the silent letters gh in thought, straight, taught, and weight. (See, also, digraph, trigraph.)

A quadrigraph consists of four letters pronounced as one sound; furthermore, these four letters occupy the same syllable. Some people claim that English does not have true quadrigraphs, also known as tetragraphs. However, the case for tetragraphs can be made if one counts the silent letters gh in thought, straight, taught, and weight. (See, also, digraph, trigraph.)

The schwa is a sound that is pronounced with a shortened short-vowel u sound, |ŭ|. It is denoted in dictionaries as an upside-down e, |ә|. Most polysyllabic words include at least one schwa syllable. Reference: Lessons 30, 65, and 66

Why the schwa? Sometimes we speak too fast to pronounce syllables accurately, or we have a lazy tongue. Whatever the reason, we fail to clearly and distinctly pronounce some vowels. The arbiters of the English language have responded to this tendency by giving us the schwa. Most dictionaries use the upside-down e symbol |ə| to indicate a schwa. The schwa is really quite common and follows a very predictable pattern. It occurs in unaccented syllables, and most polysyllabic words include at least one schwa syllable. Reference: Lessons 65 and 66

The schwa sound can be produced by or with any vowel. It will occasionally be made with the letter y (as in Maryland) or with such combinations as ai or ou (found in certain and famous, respectively). Reference: Lessons 67 and 85

A sentence is a grouping of words that expresses a complete thought. A sentence always must have at least one subject and at least one verb. The subject of a sentence is a noun (a person, place, or thing) or a pronoun (I, he, she, it, we, you, they). The subject and verb must agree, meaning a singular noun must have a verb that comports with its singularity (e.g., “Hayley dances” but “Janie and Kyle dance”).

See vowel sounds and spellings (page 212). Reference: Unit 1 and Lessons 32 and 57

Silent letters are letters in a word that are not pronounced. In knight, the k and gh are silent letters. Reference: Lessons 81, 82, and page 254

In grammar, singular denotes one person or thing.

Some alphabet letters and patterns have a definite stopping point. For example, the consonant p (|p|) stops rather abruptly. It is a noncontinuous sound. Noncontinuous sounds are also referred to as quick, stop, or clipped sounds. See, also, noncontinuous sound and continuous sound.

A suffix is an element added to the end of a word to make another word close in meaning. In happiness, the ness is a suffix. Reference: Lessons 30, 31, 56-60, 63, and 72

A syllable is a sound unit that consists of a lone letter or several letters. All English words consist of one or more syllables, and each syllable contains at least one vowel. A simple way to count syllables in a word is to count the number of times your chin drops when you pronounce the word. For example, the chin drops twice during the pronunciation of Bat • man and zig • zag. The word encyclopedia has six syllables. (See, also, polysyllabic.)

A tetragraph consists of four letters pronounced as one sound; the four letters occur in the same syllable. Another word for tetragraph is quadrigraph.

When three letters are spelled in the same syllable and are pronounced as or represent one sound, they are referred to as a trigraph. One example of a trigraph is the ing in sing. Another trigraph is eau, as in beauty or bureau.

A verb is a word that indicates action or existence (a state of being). The word am is a state-of-being verb (“I am a good reader”). The word jump is an example of an action verb (“Will Ross jump over the log?”).

To determine if the sound of a letter is voiced, touch your neck over your vocal cords with your fingers, pronounce the letter, and feel if your vocal cords vibrate. If they vibrate, the letter is voiced. All vowel sounds are voiced. Some of the voiced consonants are b, d, g, j, l, m, n, r, v, w, y, and z, plus the so-called second sounds of the letters s and x, which are |z| and |gz|, respectively.

Some alphabet letters have more than one sound. For example, the consonant s has two sounds—one is voiced and the other is voiceless. The voiceless sound of s is found in sat and boss. The voiced (or second) sound of s is |z|, as found in his and choose. (See, also, voiceless.) Reference: Lessons 27 and 59

If a speaker’s vocal cords do not vibrate while he expresses a letter or digraph, the unit is characterized as voiceless. Generally, the voiceless letters are pronounced with more air than the voiced ones. Compare the voiceless th in thick and path with the voiced th in then and this. Notice that the former two produce more air and no vocal cord vibration. Among the voiceless sounds are |f|, |h|, |k|, |p|, |t|; the first sound of the letters s (|s|) and x (|ks|); and both sounds for the letter c (|k| and |s|). Notice that ch and sh are voiceless, too. (See voiced.) Reference: Lessons 27 and 59

The English alphabet has five vowels: a, e, i, o, and u. Every word in English contains at least one vowel. The consonants y and w sometimes function as vowels.

► Short vowels The short-vowel sounds are ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, and ŭ, as found in at, egg, if, on, and up, respectively. A regularly spelled short-vowel word or syllable has one or more consonants appearing after a single vowel. When a consonant follows a vowel in a syllable, it is called a closed syllable. Reference: Lessons 32 and 57

► Long vowels The five vowels have both short and long sounds. The long sounds are ā, ē, ī, ō, and ū. Remember when encountering vowels that if two vowels are in the same syllable, the second vowel makes the first vowel say its name (its long sound), and the second vowel is silent. This pattern has few exceptions. Notice the long-vowel pattern with bake and bail. When a syllable ends with a vowel (is open), this syllable will often be accented and typically will be pronounced with its long sound. We see this pattern in the word broken |brōʹ • kǝn|.

► Two vowels in the same syllable As mentioned above, when two vowels appear in the same syllable, the first vowel is usually pronounced with its long-vowel sound (the same sound as the vowel’s name), and the second vowel is silent. We see this illustrated in boat and meat. The pattern (two vowels in the same syllable) holds true for game and bike, as well. It doesn’t matter if the two vowels are contiguous (side by side) or separated by a consonant. If they appear in the same syllable, the first vowel will say its name, and the second vowel will be silent. Here are several more examples of two vowels appearing in one syllable:
a says |ā| as in game and sail
i says |ī| as in bike and pie
o says |ō| as in froze and boat
u says |ū| as in mule and cue
e says |ē| as in Pete and meal

► Open, accented syllables When a syllable ends with a vowel, the syllable is referred to as an open syllable. (Think of it this way: The syllable is not walled off by a consonant.) An accented syllable is pronounced with more emphasis than a non-accented syllable. For example, in the word baby, the first syllable [ba] is accented. The word baby is pronounced [bāʹ • bē|, not |bā • bēʹ|. When a syllable is open and accented, the vowel is usually pronounced with the long-vowel sound. An open syllable does not have to be accented to be pronounced with the long sound.

Let’s look at another example of this pattern. In bonus, |bōʹ • nŭs|, the first syllable [bo] is an open syllable since it ends with a vowel. It is also the accented syllable. The second syllable [nŭs] is a short-vowel syllable that ends in a consonant—i.e., it is a closed syllable—and it has no special emphasis.

If two vowels together in a word are in separate syllables, more often than not both vowels will be pronounced with their long-vowel sounds. Look at the e and o in video, |vĭd • ēʹ • ōʹ|. Consider, also, the o and a in oasis, |ōʹ • āʹ • sĭs|. Note the first i and the o in violin, |vīʹ • ōʹ • lĭn|. And, finally, look at the three vowels in rodeo, |rōʹ • dēʹ • ōʹ|. If the last syllable in a word ends with o (judo, rodeo, motto), the o will almost always be pronounced with its long-vowel sound.