A a

[Vowel]

Pronounce the SHORT vowel sound for the letter a, |ă|, by opening the mouth and tightening the corners in a tense almost smile. Lower the tongue in the mouth. The sound that issues will be like the a in apple. All vowel sounds are continuous, which means that as long as one has breath and time, the sound can continue uninterrupted. All vowel sounds also are voiced. To determine if a sound is voiced, pronounce the letter while touching the neck over the vocal cords. If the vocal cords vibrate, the letter is considered voiced. The short-vowel sound of the letter a is voiced.

a  |ă|     at  camp  lab  apple
au     laugh  aunt

Pronounce the LONG vowel sound for the letter a, |ā|, by holding the teeth about one-half inch apart and the facial muscles somewhat tense. The lips are not rounded but wide, and the tongue is lifted to about mid-high in the mouth. The long-vowel a can also be pronounced with the tongue down. As with all of the vowels, the long-vowel letter a is continuous and voiced. The long vowels are pronounced exactly the same as their name. Thus, a says |ā|, as in ape (|āp|).

Silent e  ai  |ā|     ape  cake  sail
ay  a     day  baby

The long-vowel a, when it is followed by the letters nk or ng, is pronounced with less emphasis than normal. The spelling combinations ank, ang, are, and air are pronounced a bit out of the ordinary, also. The change in sound will be stronger in words spelled with r, as in stare and fair. (These are called r-controlled words.) The modified sound is similar to the short sound of e (|ě| ) or the slightly changed long-vowel sound of a. Most students will not pick up on the nuanced sound change caused by these patterns.

ank  ang  |ā|     bank  tank  sang  clang     See: N and G
are  air  |ā|, |â|, or |ě|     care  stare  hair  fair     See: R

Pronounce (what I often refer to as) the THIRD sound of a as |ä| or |ô|, as in car, all, fault, and water. The lips are open and rounded, the facial muscles relaxed, the tongue down, and the jaw dropped. The |ä| sound is very similar to the sound of the short-vowel o, |ŏ|, heard in stop. These additional sounds of a (|ä|, |ô|, and |ŏ|) are voiced.

al  aw  au  |ô|     all  straw  haul
ar  a  ear    |ä|     ark  star  ma  heart
qua  wa  |ä| or |ŏ|     quality  water
ar   |ǝr|     tartar  polar  altar  molar     See: R
a   |ə|     final  original  alone  dental     See: Schwa
ea  oa  ai   silent     meat  road  boat  Cairo     See: Silent letters

B b

[Consonant]

The letter b produces only one sound: |b|. The letter b is silent in a few words.

To pronounce the letter b, |b|, close the lips gently. Lightly build up the air pressure (including in the nasal cavity) and allow the lips, nose, and vocal cords to vibrate as pressure builds. Release the lips so that a little breath escapes along with a slight |bŭh| sound. The neck will vibrate, meaning the letter b is voiced. The |b| sound has a definite and fairly short lifespan; in other words, b is not a continuous sound.

When you pronounce b, it will have some |ŭh| sound, but shorten the |ŭh| sound as much as possible. In fact, coach your student to say a crisp or clipped |b|, not |bŭh|. After a word has been initially sounded out letter-by-letter, don’t allow your student to continue handling the word piecemeal. For example, some students will be tempted to pronounce bam as|bŭh|-|ă|-|ŭmŭh|or bat as |bŭh|-|ă|-|tŭh|. This is a common student error that impedes understanding the meaning of words.

Encourage your student to pronounce a word (or syllable) like bat by blending the first two letter sounds together, |bă|, then pronouncing the third sound immediately thereafter. Thus, for bat, he should say, |bă|. . . |t|, and eventually |băt|. The goal is to sound the |b|, limit the |ŭh| sound as much as possible, and then quickly finish the word. Essentially, we want your student to glide through all of the letters of a syllable or word. Proper phrasing will truly aid your student’s reading comprehension.

b bb   |b|         bat ebb rabbit
b         silent     debt doubt plumber thumb     See: Silent letters

Teaching Tip: A reading interventionist we know illustrates to her students that the sound of b is short and clipped by making a scissor motion with her fingers.

P and b are equivalent letters. This means that the configuration of the mouth and lips is the same for pronouncing both letters. Close the lips gently, and release the lips so that breath escapes to make the sound. The final result for each is different, however. With p, there is no vibration, no buildup of air pressure. With b, on the other hand, there is vibration. A partial list of equivalent letters can be found on page 208 in the Basic Terms section. Knowing about equivalent letters will often help your student pronounce words correctly.

C c

[Consonant]

The letter c sounds like |k| when paired with the vowels a, o, or u. This |k| sound is true also for the pairing of c with the consonant blends cl and cr.

c     |k|     cat cot cut clock cross     See: K

The ck spelling is common for making the |k| sound at the end of short-vowel words or syllables. The letter c combined with the letter k (ck) is pronounced as one sound—|k|.

ck     |k|     back rock block     See: K

The ch digraph is pronounced |k|, as in ache and echo. This digraph is quite typical for words derived from Greek.

ch     |k|     ache mechanic anchor Christmas     See: K

There are just a few short-vowel words and syllables that end with the |k| sound and are spelled with only the letter c.

c     |k|     picnic attic active Aztec lilac     See: K

The letter c is pronounced |s| when paired with e, i, and y. We note this in cell, city, and cycle. This is a trustworthy pattern, so be on the lookout for ce, ci, and cy.

ce ci cy     |s|     cell city cycle     See: S

Pronounce the digraph ch, |ch|, with the lips rounded, open, and slightly puckered, and the teeth almost closed. Place the tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth, just behind the upper front teeth. Block air in the nose and allow pressure to build where the tongue connects with the roof of the mouth, then drop the tongue, releasing an explosion of sound: |ch|.

ch     |ch|     check teacher chase church rich much such

When a short-vowel syllable or word ends in |ch|, the spelling usually includes a silent t. We see the tch spelling pattern in stitch and patch. (Exceptions include rich, much, such, which, and touch).

tch     |ch|     etch match notch stitch dispatch ratchet

The Italian word cappuccino is emblematic of the ci spelling with the |ch| sound. There are a few words spelled with ce that make the |ch| sound.

ce ci     |ch|     cello cappuccino Pacino

The ch spelling is pronounced |sh| in words derived from French (e.g., chef).

ch     |sh|     chef chute schwa machine     See: S
ce ci     ocean special social facial     See: S
c     silent     czar scene science     See: Silent letters

Recap: The three sounds for the ce and ci spelling patterns are |s| as in cell and city; |ch| as in cello and cappuccino; and |sh| as in ocean and special.

Recap: The three sounds for the ch spelling pattern are |ch|, as in church; |k| as in ache; and |sh| as in chef.

D d

[Consonant]

Pronounce the letter d as |d|, not |dŭh|. To form the |d| sound, slightly separate the teeth while lightly pressing the tip of the tongue to the roof of the mouth, just behind the gum line of the upper front teeth. Lightly build up air pressure (including in the nasal cavity), causing the tongue, nose, and vocal cords to vibrate. Build pressure by blocking the air flow, then release the air as the tongue drops.

As mentioned above, pronounce d as |d|, not |dŭh|. Alone, the letter d will have some |ŭh| sound, but shorten the |ŭh| as much as possible. Clip the pronunciation.

The voiceless letter t is the equivalent letter for the voiced letter d.
Reference: Basic Terms, Equivalent Letters (page 208)

Encourage your student to pronounce (or phrase) a word by blending its first two letter sounds together and then sounding out the next letter in quick succession. So, for example, dim is read as |dĭ|-|m|, and dad is read as |dă|-|d|. Dad is not pronounced |dŭh|-|ă|-|dŭh|; nor is dim pronounced |dŭh|-|i|-|ŭmŭh|. These two adjustments—shortening the sound of the letter d and instantly pronouncing the vowel that immediately follows it—will enhance student comprehension.

d dd     |d|     did dug daddy doll dog dell

The ending –ed is pronounced |d| when –ed is preceded by a voiced letter. Notice the ending sound in cleaned, drummed, and tuned. Note also that this particular tacking on of –ed does not add a new syllable to the root words.

ed     cleaned drummed tuned

The ending –ed is pronounced |t| when –ed is preceded by a voiceless letter. Notice the ending sound in pushed, hopped, and baked. The root words push (|sh|), hop (|p|), and bake (|k|) end in voiceless sounds. The –ed ending sounds like |t|.

ed     |t|     pushed hopped baked kicked     See: T
boxed passed puffed graphed
laughed punched rocked

The ending –ed is pronounced |əd| or |ĕd| when preceded by the letters d or t. This pronunciation adds an additional syllable to the root words.

ed |əd| or |ĕd|     jolted dusted batted kidded graded voted

When pronouncing land and end, do say the sound of the d. When pronouncing the plurals of these words, however, treat the d as silent. The s sound interrupts the completion of the d sound, so lands sounds almost like |lănz|. Note that the s here is pronounced with its second sound, |z|.

d     silent     lands ends bands     See: Silent letters

E e

[Vowel]

To pronounce the SHORT sound of the letter e, |ĕ|, relax the muscles of the face and raise the tongue slightly to approximately mid-high in the mouth. With the lips open and the lip corners tightened, say |ĕ|. (Lips and teeth are slightly closer together than when pronouncing |ă|.) The sound |ĕ| is sometimes spelled ea, but this is rare.

e     |ĕ|     bed egg step fell
ea     spread bread thread

When the SHORT vowel sound |ĕ| is followed immediately by m or n (em and en), there will be a slight change in sound.

em en     |ĕm| |ĕn|     hem ten hen spend enlist remnant

Pronounce the LONG vowel sound for e, |ĕ|, by raising and tightening the tongue against the upper side teeth. Hold the teeth close together with the facial muscles somewhat tense. The lips are less rounded and more in the shape of a widened slit, with the corner of the lips slightly tightened. The long-vowel e is voiced and continuous.

ee ea e     |ē|     week feet eat be decide
silent e ey ei     |ē|     Pete key ceiling

If the long-vowel e is followed by the letter r, a slight sound change occurs.

Silent e ear eer eir     |ēr|     here hear ear steer weird

Words ending in –ed conclude one of three ways:
(254)     An –ed appearing after a d or t is pronounced as a separate syllable having a short-vowel sound, |ĕ|, or schwa sound, |ə|, as in padded and floated.
(2)     If the root word to which –ed is added ends in a voiced sound, it usually is pronounced with the voiced |d|. Notice this pattern with the m in framed and the b in stubbed. The e is, therefore, treated as silent.
(3)     Words that end with a voiceless sound are usually pronounced with the voiceless |t| sound, as in helped and boxed. The e is silent in this case.

As a rule, before we add –ed, we double the final consonant of a root word when this root word has a short-vowel sound and ends in a single consonant. We do this doubling in order to preserve the root word’s short-vowel sound. Examples of doubling the final consonant of the base word before adding –ed are sin → sinned and trap → trapped. For long-vowel (silent e) words, we drop the e and then add –ed, as we see with bake → baked and style → styled. Likewise, this latter pattern of spelling (dropping the e) keeps the long-vowel sound in the word. [See Lessons 56 – 60]

ed     |әd| |d| |t|     padded framed helped     See: Schwa, D, T
ea ey ei     |ā|     great steak they veil eight     See: A
silent e ew eu     |ū|     cute few feud     See: U
ew     |ü|     new flew     See: U
er ear     |ər|     her former learn heard     See: R
ear     |är|     heart hearken     See: A
le el e     |ә|     apple nickel open     See: Schwa
e     silent     speed tie due bake rule mute     See: Schwa

F f

[Consonant]

The letter f produces only one sound: |f|. (The only exception to this pattern is the word of. The f in of is pronounced |v|.) There are, however, five spellings that create the sound |f|: f, ff, gh, ph, and sometimes v.

To pronounce the consonant f, |f|, place the top front teeth lightly on the bottom lip and blow air between the lips and teeth. The sound is voiceless. Say |f|, not |fŭh|.

The voiced letter v is the equivalent letter of the voiceless letter f.
Reference: Basic Terms

f ff     |f|     fan fluff office coffee

The letter f has one word with the |v| sound: of.

f     |v|     of     See: V

Note: In some words, the sound of |f| is spelled with foreign-based spellings. Examples are the ph found in phonics, alphabet, and telephone, and gh found in rough, laugh, and laughter.
Note: The |f| sound is spelled with a v in at least one word, svelte.

G g

[Consonant]

Pronounce the letter g, |g|, by raising the middle or back of the tongue. Lightly build up air pressure, including in the nasal cavity, allowing the nose, roof of the mouth, and vocal cords to vibrate. Release air from the back of the throat and lower the tongue (now slightly hump-shaped) to emit the g sound, |g|. The sound of |g| is not continuous. This pronunciation is often referred to as the hard sound of g.

Pronounce g as |g|, not |gŭh|. Alone, the letter g will have some |ŭh| sound, but shorten the |ŭh| as much as possible.

Often, students will initially pronounce a word like gap as |gŭh|-|ă|-|pŭh|. Encourage your student to blend the sounds of the first two letters |gă|, then, as quickly as possible, pronounce the third sound: |gă|-|p|. These two adjustments—clipping the sound of the letter g and instantly pronouncing the vowel that follows it—will boost comprehension.

g gg     |g|     gate goat gum get gill argyle gagged
gh     ghetto afghan ghastly spaghetti

The ge, gi, and gy spelling patterns usually are pronounced |j|, as in gym, or |zh|, as in mirage. These are a softer sound than the hard g. Some Exceptions: get, gill, and argyle.

Ge gi gy     |j|     age agile gym garage beige     See: J
ge     |zh|     garage mirage beige     See: |zh|

Words spelled with ng, |ng|, have a shortened hard g sound. The ng digraph is pronounced |ng|, which is different than the n and the g would be pronounced if appearing separately. The n in the ng spelling pattern is pronounced farther back in the mouth than is the n in words like ban and tan. Leave the tongue in the adjusted n position to complete the sound. Be sure to pronounce the g in the ng without saying |gŭh|. [See Lesson 20]

ng     |ng|     song spring gang king     See: N and G
gh     |f|     rough laugh toughen     See: F
gh     silent     sigh might lightning     See: Silent letters

Recap: The spelling gh has three sounds: |g|, |f|, and silent, as in ghetto, rough, and sigh, respectively.

H h

[Consonant]

The letter h produces only one sound: |h|. In some words, the h will be silent.

Pronounce h, |h|, by taking a small breath and forcing the air through the throat and out of the open mouth. This sound does not produce vibration in the vocal cords. Blend the h sound with the vowel that follows it (like the a in hat or i in hill). The sound of h is continuous. Pronounce the letter h with only air, |h|, not with an |ŭh| sound.

h     |h|     hat behave hill help hum hope
h     silent     John oh Utah Esther     See: Silent letters

I i

[Vowel]

Pronounce the SHORT vowel sound for the letter i, |ĭ|, by slightly opening and widening the lips while tightening the corners of the mouth almost in a smile. Raise the tongue high in the center of the mouth. (The lips and teeth will be slightly closer together and the tongue slightly pulled up from the position used when pronouncing short-vowel e, |ĕ|.) The letter i is voiced and continuous, as are all vowels.

Some students fail to differentiate between the short-vowel sounds of i and e (|ĭ| vs. |ĕ|). One instructor we know uses a simple and effective technique to help students see the difference. She tells her student to stick his index finger in his mouth while he says egg. It is possible for him to pronounce this |ĕ| word and get his finger past his teeth. Next, she has her student try to insert his finger past his teeth while he says a short-vowel i word, such as sit. The student will realize that his teeth are now too close together to do the maneuver. Thus, the student is able to see that these sounds are made differently.

i     |ĭ|     sit trim pilgrim igloo

Pronounce the LONG vowel sound for the letter i, |ī|, by opening the mouth and widening and lowering the jaw with the tongue resting in the bottom of the mouth. Close the mouth a bit while raising the back of the tongue towards the cutting edge of the back upper teeth. As the sound of i is projected, the vibration produced in the mouth and throat will be quite noticeable. The long-vowel i is actually a blend of two discrete sounds. At first the sound is a pure |ī|, but as the mouth and jaws narrow, the pronunciation concludes with the sound of long e, |ē|. The emphasis is placed on the beginning sound rather than the barely pronounced ending sound. The long-vowel i sound is voiced and continuous.

Silent e i     |ī|     ride pie ice diet
ie ild ind     tried child kind find

i ie     |ē|     taxi sing police amiable kindliest field     See: E
ir     |ər|     first birth third stir     See: R
oi     |ōē| |ōĭ|     toil point join     See: O
i     |y|     onion million opinion minions     See: Y
i     |ә|     family bountiful sediment     See: Schwa
i     silent     sail paid weird fruit     See: Silent letters

J j

[Consonant]

Pronounce j, |j|, with gentle rounding of the lips, slightly separating the teeth while placing the tongue against the roof of the mouth. (This tongue position is slightly flatter and a little behind where the tongue is placed for the letter d.) Lightly build up pressure (including in the nasal cavity) and allow the nose, roof of the mouth, and vocal cords to vibrate as pressure builds. The release of the tongue and pressure is softer and less crisp but similar to the release sound in |d|. The |j| release has some of the voiced |zh| sound but terminates quickly; it is not a continuous sound. The pronunciations of |d|, |zh|, and |j| are voiced. The voiceless |ch| sound is the equivalent for the voiced |j| sound.

j     |j|     jet jade jump pajama

j     |h|     Jose Javier Mojave     See: H
j     |hw|     Juan Joaquin     See: W
j     |ē|     fjord     See: E
j     |y|     hallelujah     See: Y

K k

[Consonant]

The letter k produces only one sound: |k|.

Make the sound of k, |k|, by raising and pressing the tongue towards the roof of the mouth in front of the soft palate. Allow pressure to build, then drop and release air over the tongue in the back of the mouth. Pronouncing this letter creates no vibration. When appearing at the end of most short-vowel syllables or words, the |k| sound is usually spelled with the ck spelling pattern, as in rock and back. The voiced |g| sound of g is the equivalent sound for the voiceless |k| sound of k.

k     |k|     keg kid kite Kyle
ck     sick bucket

Note: The |k| sound has at least six spellings: c, k, ck (s), x, qu, and ch. Listen for the |k| sound in cat, kick, locks, box, quick, and ache.

L l

[Consonant]

The letter l produces only one sound: |l|. In some words the letter l will be silent.

Pronounce the letter l, |l|, by lightly touching the tip of the tongue behind the upper front teeth while allowing air to pass around the tongue, causing a gentle vibration. When appearing at the end of a word, the l has a very slight |lŭh| sound. When pronouncing l, shorten the sound of |ŭh| so that it is barely heard.

When a word begins with l followed by a vowel, the tongue drops or glides into the vowel sound. Lap sounds like |lă| . . . |p|. Often, the letter l has a soft ә sound when it appears at the end of a word or syllable (e.g., pill, |pĭ|-|lә|). This ending l sound, |lә|, is just barely detectible.

Encourage your student to pronounce or phrase a word by blending the first two letter sounds together and then immediately adding the third sound (e.g., |lă|-|b| → lab).

L ll     |l|     lab limp pill lullaby
l le     told melt ripple
lf lk     silent     half calf talk walk

M m

[Consonant]

The letter m produces only one sound: |m|.

Pronounce the letter m, |m|, by lightly shutting the lips while the vocal cords, lips, and nasal passages vibrate. This is like a hum |mm| with air passing slightly through the nose. If a word or syllable ends with the letter m, the lips are lightly closed and will vibrate. When a word or syllable begins with m (mat, mop), the lips vibrate while being lightly shut, then they open to make the sound of the vowel that follows the m (|mă|-|t|, |mŏ|-|p|). The letter m is voiced and continuous.

m mm     |m|     mat mop slim stamp remember drummer

N n

[Consonant]

Pronounce the letter n, |n|, by placing the tongue just behind the upper front teeth and against the roof of the mouth. With the teeth slightly separated, allow the |n| sound to come through the nasal passages with vibration, similar to the nasal vibration and sound that occur when pronouncing the letter m (|m|). These two letters, m and n, both have a nasal quality. Say |n|, not |nŭh|.

When a word or syllable ends with n, the tongue remains lightly touching behind the teeth and on the roof of the mouth. We observe this, for example, in pan: |pă|-|n|. When the letter n begins a word or syllable, the tongue has to drop into position for the ensuing vowel sound. By way of illustration, see how this happens with the a in nap: |nă|-|p|.

n nn     |n|     nap man band numbers runner

The spelling patterns ng, |ng|, and nk, |ngk|, typically appear at the end of a syllable or word. Correct pronunciation requires a position change of the tongue from the normal n sound. To pronounce a traditional n, we place the front of the tongue just behind the teeth on the roof of the mouth, as when we say pan (|păn|). To pronounce the ng and the nk spelling patterns, however, the back of the tongue will touch the roof of the mouth farther back. The tongue touches the roof of the mouth in the same position as when the speaker pronounces the letter g. The patterns n, ng, and nk are produced somewhat nasally, with air flowing through the nose more than through
the mouth.

The ng spelling pattern also triggers a change in how g is pronounced. With ng, instead of finishing with a small |gŭh|, leave the back of the tongue lightly touching the roof
of the mouth and mute the g somewhat at the end. We say sing (|sēng|), not |sēn • gŭh|. The nk sound is completed by a puff of air, without vibration, showcasing the |k| sound.

ng     |ng|     song singing
nk     |ngk|     bank trunk honking

Pronounce ñ, |ñ|, by holding the teeth close together and placing the tip of the tongue on the roof of the mouth for the n sound to begin. Then, drop the tip of the tongue into the consonant y pronunciation position, with the sides of the tongue pressed against the inside of the upper teeth. A hump in the middle of the tongue prevents air from easily passing over the tongue. The lips are drawn back or slightly stretched from side to side. This consonant letter is voiced (involves vibration). The ñ is pronounced as if it were spelled |ny|, with some shortening of the |ŭh| sound. The n sound in vignette has the same sound as the ñ makes. The g in this word is silent.

ñ gn     |ny|     piñata vignette

n     silent     hymn column autumn     See: Silent letters

O o

[Vowel]

When pronouncing the SHORT sound for o, |ŏ|, relax the facial muscles, lips, and jaw. Open and round the lips with the center of the tongue resting low in the mouth. The voiced short-vowel o sound comes from the throat. The posture is similar to when the doctor asks a patient to open his mouth and say “aah” (|ä|, |ô|, or |ŏ|). For the doctor to get a clear view of the throat, the jaw and facial and throat muscles need to be relaxed.

There are some variations in pronouncing o. The differences are slight, however. The sound is indicated with |ä|, |ô|, or |ŏ|. Sometimes this short-vowel o sound is spelled ou, as in cough and bought.

a  |ă|     at  camp  lab  apple
au     laugh  aunt

To pronounce the LONG sound for the vowel letter o, |ō|, as when saying vote, begin the sound with rounded, open, and slightly puckered lips (the lips, cheeks, and facial muscles will be slightly tensed). The tongue rests in the bottom of the mouth initially. Emit the |ō| sound from the throat and almost close the still-rounded mouth; pucker the lips, tightening around the dimples or the edges of the mouth; and slightly raise the back of the tongue. In fact, the long o is the longest expressed of all the vowels. If it were represented in musical notes, we would say that long |ō| inhabits more of a measure. The |ō| is voiced and continuous.

o silent e     |ō|     go broken vote
oe oa     toe road boat
ol ow     hold snow
ost oth     most both

As with all of the vowels, when followed by the letter r, the vowel sound will be slightly changed. These are referred to as r-controlled words..

or oor our     |ō|     torn door four

To pronounce the |ü| sound for the vowel letter o, as in moon, hold the muscles in the lips, cheeks, and face tight or tense with the lips rounded and more puckered than when pronouncing the long o. Hold the tip and back of the tongue mid-high in the mouth. In pronouncing the |ü| sound, one must not produce a |y| sound, |yū|(which would make the long-vowel sound of u, |ū|). The correct sound is that found in moon. The lips and vocal cords will lightly vibrate, making the sound voiced and continuous.

o ou     |ü|     today do soup group
oo oe     room moon balloon shoe

The letter o is also pronounced with the |ů| sound, as in look.

o ou     |ü|     today do soup group
oo oe     room moon balloon shoe

We pronounce the diphthongs oi and oy (pronounced |ōē| or |ōĭ|) by blending their vowels. For either sound, begin with the tongue positioned low in the mouth, then raise the middle or back part of the tongue to finish the sound. With facial muscles somewhat tense, lips rounded, and tongue held in the middle of the mouth, widen the lips, raising the front of the tongue high in the mouth to almost the same position as for a long-vowel e or short-vowel i. The oi and oy spelling patterns are voiced and inhabit the same syllable.

oi     |ōē| or |ōĭ|     toil boil coiled
oy     toy boy alloy

Pronounce the diphthong |ow|, spelled either ou or ow, by tensing the facial muscles while opening and widening the lips. Bring the lips into a tight, almost closed, rounded position while continuing to keep the tongue down. Move the tension from the corners of the mouth and cheeks to the lips, and bring the mouth into a closed position similar to the position used when saying the |ü| in moon. The letters that form the ou and ow diphthongs are not split into separate syllables. They work together as a team.

ou     |ow|     loud shout mouth cloud fountain
ow     cow down crown

The letter o sometimes has the murmur diphthong sound |ər|, as in word, doctor, and journal. (All of the vowels can function at times as a murmur diphthong.)

wor or     |ər|     word doctor record actor     See: R
our     journey courage tournament

The letter o sometimes is pronounced with the SHORT sound of u, |ŭ|, as in come and blood, or the schwa sound |ə|, as in lemon.

o oo     |ŭ| or |ə|     lemon nothing come money blood     See: U or schwa
o     compete confuse consult brother of
ou     famous couple touch trouble

Recap: The oo spelling has four sounds: |ü|, |ō|, |ů|, and |ŭ|, as in moon, door, book, and flood, respectively.
Recap: The ow spelling has two sounds: the diphthong |ow|, as in owl, and the long-vowel o sound |ō|, as in snow.
Recap: The ou spelling has at least eight sounds: the diphthong sound |ow|, as in out; the short- vowel sound of o, |ŏ|, as in cough; the long-vowel sound of o, |ō|, as in soul; the short-vowel sound of u, |ŭ|, as in touch; the schwa sound |ə|, as in generous; the |ü| sound, as in soup; the |ů| sound, as in could; and the murmur diphthong sound |ər|, as in journal.

P p

[Consonant]

Pronounce the letter p, |p|, with the lips lightly shut, then puff out air to open the lips. The letter p is voiceless, causing no vibration in the vocal cords. The mouth is positioned the same for both the letters b and p, but there are differences in pronunciation outcomes. The major difference is that b is voiced. The letter p is also different from b because the former produces a definite puff of air. The voiced letter b is the equivalent letter for the voiceless letter p.

p pp     |p|     pan top pull stomp mapping
ph     |ph|     phone nephew graphics     See: F
pn ps pt     silent     pneumonia psychology pterodactyl     See: Silent letters

Q q

[Consonant]

The digraph qu expresses itself as a combination of the |k| and |hw| sounds, |khw|, as heard in queen and quilt. Begin with the lips somewhat tense and similarly positioned as when pronouncing the voiceless sound of wh, |hw|. Pucker or round the lips, then gently tighten them, and blow air at the same time. The back of the tongue is touching or nearly touching the roof of the mouth in front of the soft palate at the back of the mouth. As the air starts releasing, round the lips and open the mouth and slightly drop the jaw, proceeding from the |k| sound into the |hw| sound: |k| . . . |hw|, |khw|. Both the |k| and the |wh| sounds are produced without vibration, making this letter combination voiceless.

qu     |khw|     quick quake queen squelch

qu     |k|     quiche bouquet antique mosquito     See: K

Only a few q words are spelled without the letter u, such as Iraq. A name can be spelled and pronounced however the originator wants.

q     |k|     Iraq     See: K

R r

[Consonant]

To pronounce the letter r, |r|, have the sides of the tongue touching the insides of the top teeth and raise the back of the tongue high in the mouth. A hollow space is formed just behind the slightly raised tip of the tongue. Air passes over this hollowed space, causing the vibration (voice) required to make the |r|. Hold the edges of the mouth, the dimples, firmly. The letter r is sometimes described as a growl, like a puppy might make (|rrr|). The tongue is pulled slightly farther back in the mouth when pronouncing r than when pronouncing w.

When pronouncing an r at the beginning of a word or syllable, open the pursed lips into the vowel sound that follows, as in ran (|ră| . . . |n|) or rut (|rŭ| . . . |t|). At the end of a word or syllable, the letter r is pronounced |әr|.

Some students have difficulty correctly pronouncing r. The r sound is made in the middle of the mouth, making it more difficult for a teacher to help a student correct errant pronunciation. The difficulties in pronouncing are likely due to the size and shape differences of people’s mouths. Insofar as these lessons are not designed to be speech therapy of any kind, just relax and do your best to guide your student.

R     |r|     rat run there paragraph
rr     purring stirrer

The murmur diphthong is the |ər| sound found in words like molar and doctor. This sound can be spelled with any of the vowels, the letter y, or with the ear or our spelling patterns. The murmur diphthong sound is possible when a vowel or vowel combination is followed by the letter r: ar, er, ir, or, ur, yr, ear, our or ure, as in altar, term, stir, actor, murmur, syrup, learn, journal, and assure, respectively. Reference: Lesson 69

ar er ir or     |ər|     altar her first bird word
ur yr ear     turn syrup earn
ure our     assure ensure insure journal nourish

S s

[Consonant]

To make the sound of s, |s|, force breath to escape through the slightly separated upper and lower teeth and over the tongue, which is raised and almost touching the ridge on the roof of the mouth behind the teeth. The sides and tip of the tongue curl up toward the roof of the mouth, forming a groove. The escaping breath produces a hissing sound, |s|. The letter s is a voiceless letter (without vibration). Most words or syllables that begin with s are indeed pronounced with the |s| sound.

The letter s is continuous.

Most words and syllables that end with s and say |s| actually have a double s (hiss, pass, bass, mass, and so forth). There are very few exceptions to the pattern. Among the exceptions are Sis, gas, and bus (which are actually shortened versions of sister, gasoline, and omnibus).

s ss     |s|     sat Sis gas snake stand lose mass passage missile

The second sound for the letter s is |z|. This sound is usually slightly softer than a true z. As a rule of thumb, whether the s is pronounced |s| or |z| is determined by which sound is easiest for the speaker to make. The |z| pronunciation of s is voiced and continuous.

s se     |z|     his choose advise     See: Z

To pronounce the digraph |sh|, pucker and slightly open the lips with the teeth together. Pull the tongue slightly back, and raise the middle groove of the tongue to mid-high in the mouth. Blow air over the tongue and between the teeth in a steady stream. The |sh| sound is pronounced nearly the same as the |s| sound, but the tongue is slightly adjusted and pulled down or back in the mouth. The |sh| sound is voiceless, without vocal cord vibration. The |zh| sound is the voiced equivalent to the voiceless |sh| sound. The sion and tion spelling patterns are pronounced |is| or |shәn|.

The sh digraph is always contained within one syllable.

sh     |sh|    sheep wish cashew
si su     mission passion issue insure assure ensure

Note: The |sh| sound can be spelled sh, is, u, ch, ce, ci, and ti (as in ship, mission, tissue, chef, ocean, facial, and partial, respectively).

Note: The |shәn| or |kshәn| sound can be spelled sion, tion, cean, and xion (as in mission, section, ocean, and complexion).

T t

[Consonant]

To pronounce the consonant t, |t|, have the tip of the tongue touch the roof of the mouth just above and behind the upper front teeth. Allow pressure to build by blocking air from passing through the nose or mouth until the tongue drops, releasing a puff or burst of air over the tip of the tongue. This letter is voiceless (without vocal cord vibration). [The voiced letter d is the equivalent letter for the voiceless letter t.] Say |t|, not |tŭh|.

t tt     |t|     tent tall tree meat listed flitted patted

VOICELESS “th” To pronounce the voiceless th digraph, |th|, relax the facial muscles and place the front of the flattened tongue very lightly touching the cutting edge of the top front teeth. Blow air over the tongue or between the tongue and top teeth, slightly separating tongue and teeth with air. This digraph sound and spelling are found in words like math and thick. Notice how pronounced the air flow is with these words and how they do not involve the vocal cords.

th     |th|     moth pathway thumb thrift

VOICED “th” The digraph th, |th|, can also be voiced. Relax the face and flatten the tongue and place the tongue lightly against the cutting edge of the top front teeth. To this point, the tongue is in the same position it is for the voiceless th digraph. Now, however, the tongue and vocal cords do not blow air between the tongue and top teeth. The voiced th digraph vibrates against the top teeth with very little, if any, air blowing around the tongue and teeth. The th spelling, pronounced |th|, with vibration and with little air, is found in words like this and father.

th     |th|     this that these mother father

Be aware of words that look like they contain a th digraph but do not. For example, pothole is pot ∙ hole, with the t and the h in separate syllables. Mother and path contain true digraphs.

The ti spelling can be pronounced |sh|, as in partial and motion.

ti tion     |sh|     partial motion section vacation     See: S

There are a few words spelled with a te or ti that make the |ch| sound.

te ti     |ch|     righteous Christian     See: C
ti     |chē|     Christianity     See: C

Note: The |t| sound can also be spelled –ed, as in helped, snapped, joked, and stacked.

U u

[Vowel]

To pronounce the SHORT sound for the letter u, ||, relax the muscles in the face, jaw, and lower lip while lowering the tongue into the center of the mouth. The sound comes from the middle lower area of the mouth. The short-vowel u sound is voiced and continuous.

A few dictionaries have replaced the |ŭ| symbol with the schwa’s upside-down e, |ә|, or a variation thereof.

u ou     |ŭ| or |ә|     duck upstairs rough famous

To pronounce the LONG sound of u, |ŭ|, hold the teeth closely together with the sides of the tongue pressed against the inside or cutting edge of the back upper teeth. A hump in the middle of the tongue prevents air from easily passing over the tongue. The lips are relaxed, with a little tension in the corners of the mouth. With the lips rounded and slightly puckered, hold the tip and back of the tongue high in the mouth. The sound of long-vowel u moves from the upper front area to very high in the middle or back of the mouth. The long-vowel u sound has a beginning sound that is similar to the consonant y and is pronounced much like the word you. Complete the pronunciation by making a sound like the oo in ooze. As with all other vowels, the long-vowel u sound is voiced and continuous.

u     |ū|     Utah uniform bugle cube

To pronounce the |ů| sound as heard in book or put, relax the facial muscles and round the lips almost in a pucker. Raise the tongue to mid-high in the mouth and allow air to flow over the tongue and through the almost-puckered lips. The |ů| sound of the letter u is similar to the short sound of the double o spelling oo, as seen in book and stood. As with all other vowel sounds, the |ů| sound is voiced and continuous.

u     |ů|     put full pulling
ou     could would should

ui     |ü|     fruit bruise     See: O
ur     |ər|     turn purple burden murmur church     See: R
u     |ә|     wishful focus circus locust     See: Schwa
bu au     silent     build buy haul     See: Silent letters
gu     silent     guard guess guest guy     See: Silent letters

Note: The ew and eu spelling patterns will sometimes make the long-vowel u sound, |ū|, as in few and euro.

V v

[Consonant]

The letter v (except for the word svelte) produces only one sound: |v|.

To pronounce the consonant letter v, |v|, draw the lower lip inward, lightly touch the upper front teeth to the lower lip, and allow the sound to vibrate the lips. (The basic position is akin to that used for pronouncing f, |f|, although f is voiceless). The lips and throat both vibrate when v is pronounced. The lip vibration is more intense for the letter v than with most letters, and the vibration can cause a slight tickle to the bottom lip. The sound of |v| is continuous. The voiceless letter f, |f|, is the equivalent letter for the voiced letter v, |v|.

One spelling pattern related to the letter v: A silent e is added to comply with the rule that English words not end with the letter v (have, live, believe, and leave).

v     |v|     van valentine divide volume
v     |f|     svelte     See: F

W w

[Consonant]

The letter w is almost always a consonant, but occasionally it functions as a vowel.

To pronounce the letter w, |w|, begin by puckering or rounding the lips. From this puckered position, gently tighten and vibrate the lips, then slightly drop the jaw and open the puckered lips and position the mouth to get ready to pronounce the next letter. When pronouncing the voiced w, |w|, touch the neck and feel the vibration in the vocal cords. Notice that the lips and nasal cavities also will gently vibrate when the voiced |w| sound is made.

w     |w|     well wagon wait rewind

The wh spelling pattern is often pronounced with the voiceless |hw| sound. Purse the lips and blow air with teeth separated and the lips rounded. Move the lips into the somewhat tense and slightly puckered position. There should be no vocal cord vibration. Again, this wh is pronounced by combining (blending) a voiceless |h| and an air-filled and voiceless |w|.

Dictionaries indicate that both the voiced |w| and the voiceless |hw| sounds can be used to pronounce the wh spelling pattern. Whatever pronunciation of wh is used, remember that it is important to teach the wh spelling pattern.

wh     |w| or |hw|     which whether whistle

wh     |h|     who whose whom whole     See: H
ow aw ew     silent     snow law stew     See: Silent letters
wr w     silent     write awry two     See: Silent letters

X x

[Consonant]

When pronouncing the voiceless sound of the letter x, |ks|, keep in mind that this letter is two sounds combined: |k| + |s|→|ks|, as in ax and six. With the front of the tongue low and touching the back of the lower teeth, raise the back of the tongue to form a hump touching the roof of the mouth. Release air from the back of the throat while blocking air from escaping through the nose. When released, the air will burst over the hump-shaped tongue, producing the |k| sound, followed immediately with the hissing sound of the letter s: |ks|. Both the |k| and |s| sounds are voiceless, making this pronunciation of x, |ks|, voiceless. The voiced second sound of x |gz| is the equivalent for this voiceless |ks| sound of x.

x     |ks|     ax six tuxedo box exile     See: K and S

To pronounce the voiced second sound for the letter x, |gz|, blend the sound equivalent of a voiced letter g (|g|) with the voiced letter z (|z|).

x     |gz|     example exist exit exile     See: G and Z

The letter x is pronounced with the z sound, |z|, only when it is used at the beginning of a syllable or word, as in Xerox™.

x     |z|     Xerox™ Xerxes xylophone     See: Z

The letter x is pronounced with a |ksh| sound in at least one word, complexion.

x     |ksh|     complexion     See: K and S

Y y

[Consonant and Vowel]

The letter y is usually a consonant, but y also functions as a vowel.

The letter y is always in the initial position in a word or syllable when it functions as a consonant. Y is usually (if not always) in the medial or end position when it functions as a vowel or diphthong.

To pronounce the consonant y, |y|, hold the teeth close together with the sides of the tongue pressed against the inside of the upper teeth. A hump in the middle of the tongue prevents air from easily passing over the tongue. The lips are drawn back or slightly stretched from side to side. The sound begins with a slight or brief |ē| sound. The consonant y is voiced, meaning that it is pronounced with vibration. Students who have difficulty remembering how to spell words that begin with y (e.g., yam) are often helped when the instructor says, “This letter is the same as the letter that begins the word yes.”

y     |y|     yes yarn yellow beyond

y yr     |ĭ|     crypt gym system myth lyrics     See: I
y uy     |ī|     byline flying reply myself buy     See: I
y ey     |ē|     daily happy manly key money     See: E
oy     |ōē| or |ōĭ|     boy enjoy destroy     See: O
yr     |ər|     myrrh syrup martyr     See: R
ey     |ā|     obey they     See: A
ay ey     silent may play daylight Saturday key     See: Silent letters

There are some words that are pronounced with what sounds like the consonant letter y but that are spelled with the letter i (onion, opinion, minions, million, billion, and trillion). Usually, it is the y that borrows the i pronunciation pattern, but that pattern is reversed here.

Z z

[Consonant]

The letter z (except in the tz letter combination) produces only one sound: |z|.

To pronounce the letter z, |z|, flatten and raise the front of the tongue and create a scoop or groove down the middle. Touch the sides of the upper teeth and gums with the sides of the tongue or hold the tongue just behind the teeth. Air flows over the tongue with the tongue definitely vibrating. This sound is often depicted as the |zz| sound that bees make. The consonant z is voiced (causes vibration) but uses less air pressure than the equivalent voiceless letter s. The voiceless s sound, |s|, is the equivalent letter for the voiced |z| sound.

When z is the last letter or sound in a short-vowel word, the word is often spelled with two z’s (zz), as in buzz and jazz. There are a few short-vowel words that end with one z (quiz).

z zz     |z|     zap zebra quiz jazz razz

The voiceless t combined with the (usually voiced) letter z is pronounced with the voiceless equivalent sound of z, the |s| sound. Try to pronounce the voiced |z| sound after the voiceless |t| sound. It’s just easier to pronounce both letters voicelessly.

tz     |ts|     pretzel Ritz quartz     See: S

Note: The |z| sound can also be spelled s, as in his and choose. This |z| sound, spelled with s, never appears at the beginning of a syllable or word. Often, the letter s, when pronounced as |z|, is followed by a silent e, as in lose and rise.

|zh| Sound

To pronounce the |zh| sound, slightly open the lips into a rounded, puckered shape with the teeth close together. Allow the lower lip to slightly jut forward while you relax the upper lip. Raise the middle groove of the tongue to mid-high while pressing the sides of the tongue to the cutting edges of the back top teeth. Let air flow over the tongue and between the teeth, allowing both the tongue and vocal cords to vibrate. The |zh| sound is voiced and continuous. The |sh| sound is the voiceless equivalent to the voiced |zh| sound.

ge su si     |zh|     garage mirage visual Asia
zu zi     seizure glazier

Schwa Sound

Pronounce the schwa sound, symbolized in dictionaries with the upside-down e, |ә|, by relaxing the muscles in the face, jaw, and lower lip while lowering the tongue into the center of the mouth. The sound comes from the middle lower area of the mouth. Pronounce the schwa with a shortened short-vowel u sound, |ŭ|, as heard in circus or locust. When a word has two or more syllables, the schwa sound usually occurs in at least one of the syllables. The three-syllable word banana has two schwas—one in the first syllable and one in the last—|bә • |năn| • ә| . Any vowel (a, e, i, o, or u) can be pronounced with the schwa sound. Lesson 65 introduces the schwa spelling patterns le, el, al, il, ol and ul, as in simple, channel, dental, evil, carol, and consul. Lesson 66 introduces the schwa sound spelled with all five vowels, as in ago, seven, devil, lemon, and locust. The letter y and the ain spelling pattern can also be pronounced with the schwa sound, as in Pennsylvania and certain, respectively. The ou spelling can be pronounced with the schwa sound, |ә|, as in famous. As with all the other vowel sounds, the schwa is voiced and continuous.

a e i o u     |ə|     ado camel rapid nothing wishful
y ai ou     Maryland certain famous

Murmur Diphthongs

The murmur diphthong, which is pronounced |ər|, can be spelled with various vowels. Notice the murmur diphthongs in altar, first, her, word, turn, syrup, earth, and your (when unstressed). Murmur diphthongs are introduced in Lesson 69.

ar er ir or wor     |ər|     polar her first learn flavor word     See: R
ur ure ear our     turn assure learn journey

Silent Letters

Silent letters sometimes serve an obvious purpose in a word, as, for example, when there is a silent e at the end of a short-vowel word, making it have a long-vowel sound and forming a whole new word. Examples of this function are past and paste and hop and hope. Having an ending silent e almost always transforms and interior short-vowel sound into a long-vowel sound.

Some words have silent letters that appear to serve no purpose. These words usually come from foreign languages, and the English language has adopted the word and kept either the spelling or the pronunciation, or both. This is true, for example with bouquet, a French word with a silent t. Some other spellings that puzzle us are are and thumb. Lessons 81 and 82 look at thumb, sign, eight, knees, hour, Psalms, wrap, czar, buy, guest, half, listen, hymn, and isle—all words having one or more silent letters.

Furthermore, there are some words in which a letter was historically pronounced but we now treat that letter as silent. Examples of this are knee and knight. These used to be pronounced |knē| and |knĭkt|, respectively.
This is not an exhaustive list of the silent letters, just a list of examples.